Month: January 2025

Copaia (Jacaranda copaia) is probably more commonly known in North American trade as para para. However, the common name of lumber from this tree varies from country to country. In fact, in Panama, it is sometimes called “elephant’s foot” as the corrugated trunk near the ground looks somewhat like an elephant’s foot.

The tree is found in Central and South America, from Belize to Brazil. It grows rapidly and is known for its ability to regenerate quickly in open clearings. It has a straight stem that can be free of branches for over 50 feet. The overall height exceeds 100 feet and the diameter is often more than 2 feet, not counting the swollen butt. It is this long straight stem that makes this tree suited for local use (where it grows) as roof poles and timbers with a long span.

The foliage resembles an arboreal fern; the leaves when broken have a somewhat obnoxious odor. The tree does have showy flowers that are a deep violet color, with blooms from February through April.

Because of the low density of the wood, because of its susceptibility to insects and decay, which is especially important in tropical countries, and because of its creamy color without much pretty grain, the wood is not highly regarded. This wood is a “local use” species; uses include furniture components, interior construction, boxes and crates, matchsticks and matchboxes. Reports are that much of the lumber from this tree is exported to China; it is then imported to various countries as an exposed wood in furniture and cabinets. Nevertheless, it does offer some manufacturing opportunities in the U.S. for furniture.

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. The density of para para varies, but averages about 17 pounds per cubic foot at 7 percent MC.

Drying. Para para is subject to rapid blue staining (a fungal activity), so it is critical that the lumber be dried promptly after sawing. Kiln drying is probably better than air drying to control this staining risk. The wood dries very rapidly and with little risk of checking, splitting or warping. 

Gluing and Machining. Gluing is easy. However, there is a risk of the liquid in the glue being adsorbed too rapidly. So, either increase the liquid content of the adhesive or move quickly after the glue is spread. Machining is also easy, but, if the tools are not sharp, the fibers will fuzz and not cut cleanly.

Stability. This wood is quite stable. It will take nearly a 7 percent moisture content change to result in a 1 percent size change radially. It will take nearly a 5 percent change tangentially to result in a 1 percent size change.

Strength. The strength varies with density. A typical strength value (MOR) is 7,040 psi. The stiffness is 1.3 million psi. Hardness is 350 pounds; these are all quite low. Comparable values for hard maple are 15,800 psi, 1.8 million psi and 1450 pounds.

Color and Grain. Heartwood and sapwood look similar and cannot easily be separated. The color is dull white with a slight hint of a pinkish hue. The vertical vessels show up as darker lines, giving the wood a coarse grain appearance. The luster is high.

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Coigue (Nothofagus dombeyi), a member of the southern beech family, is sometimes marketed as Chilean beech. The wood appears similar to our native and European beech, except for the absence of the ray fleck. 

It has a bit more pink or reddish coloration than North American beech. A nearly identical species is called rauli (Nothofagus procera). Note that the genus name Nothofagus means “false beech.”

These two species, coigue and rauli, grow mainly in Chile and Argentina. The trees are often 130 feet tall and three feet or larger in diameter. Although they are hardwood trees (that is, they have leaves and not needles), but they are also evergreens. 

The first branch is often more than 50 feet above the ground, meaning that the harvested tree produces large volumes of clear lumber. In the forests, the tree grows rapidly and in dense, single-species stands.

Due to its abundance and favorable growth and appearance, we expect to see more of this lumber imported into North America. 
However, on the negative side, much of the supply in Argentina is in national parks, so harvesting is limited.

The lumber from these two species appears similar to cherry and therefore is being sold as a cherry substitute, at considerably lower prices than cherry. 

The wood is easy to work and quite stable when the moisture changes. This wood is certainly an all-purpose type of wood and will find widespread uses in furniture and cabinets. 

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. The wood is almost always brought into the U.S. already kiln dried, although it may not be at the preferred 7.0 percent MC level. It weighs about 31 pounds per cubic foot, which means that a ¾-inch thick board foot will weigh about 2 pounds. There is a 10 percent natural variation in density from the lightest weight to the heavier pieces.

Drying. Drying is difficult — slow with a lot of warping and collapse. The collapse must be removed or recovered by using a steaming treatment at the end of drying. If not done, when the wood is exposed to wetting or high humidity in manufacturing or afterwards, it will swell erratically; it may swell 5 percent or more at this first wetting exposure. Shrinkage in drying, except for collapse is typical for a medium density hardwood, about 5.3 percent across the width of a flatsawn piece of lumber.

Gluing and machining. This wood glues very well with no extra care required. This wood also machines well, as might be expected, given its density. As always, the best machining occurs when knives are sharp.

Stability. Coigue is fairly stable, requiring a 4-1/2 percent MC change in the tangential direction (parallel to the rings) for a 1 percent size change. 

Strength. The ultimate bending strength (MOE) is 14,900 psi. The elasticity is 2.26 million psi. The hardness is 1160 pounds. Coigue is a bit stronger, stiffer, and harder than cherry. (The values reported here for coigue are for lower density material; some increase can be expected as the wood density wood increases.) For comparison, cherry is 12,300 psi, 1.49 psi and 950 pounds.

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Rubberwood is the name given to lumber from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), which is a tree producing latex to produce natural rubber. (Other names today include parawood and Malaysian oak.) 

Although Christopher Columbus was shown rubber on his journeys to the New World, it was not until 1839 that the vulcanization process was invented that made the elastic properties of rubber permanent. 

Prior to WW II, a vast forest area of rubber tree plantations, especially in the Amazon region, were envisioned and planted to satisfy the world’s growing demand for natural rubber. But then synthetic rubber was developed, making the rubber forests essentially obsolete. Today, with natural rubber being in more demand, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia grow most of the trees (covering 9 million acres), produce most of the natural rubber, and have the largest supplies of lumber.

The reason that rubberwood is an important lumber species is that the latex production from the trees drops after about 25 years. Further, newer genotypes have been developed in recent years resulting in higher production of latex, compared to older trees. So, the 25-year-old trees are being cut to renew the rubber forest. 

In the past, these old trees were burned. However, today, most of these older trees are being sawn into lumber. This lumber production from plantation grown trees is indeed quite environmentally friendly. Products made from this wood include furniture and cabinets, household woodenware, and parquet flooring, and this species is fairly popular in furniture that is being imported into the U.S.

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. Most plantation grown stock will run about 35 to 37 pounds per cubic foot at 7 percent MC. For a piece of wood at 7 percent MC that is ¾ inch thick by 6 inches wide and 24 inches long, the weight is 2.3 pounds. Kiln-dried, rough lumber will weigh about 3000 pounds per 1,000 BF.

Drying. Rubberwood dries rapidly with a medium to high risk of warp development. Splitting can also occur on the ends of the lumber pieces. Radially (thickness of a flatsawn piece) the shrinkage in drying is under 2 percent. Tangentially (the width in flatsawn lumber), shrinkage is 4 percent. 

Gluing and machining. Gluing is reported to be excellent. The wood machines well with few defects or problems.

Stability. It takes a 12 percent moisture content change for a 1 percent size change radially. It takes a 6 percent MC change tangentially. Kiln drying to the correct final MC (usualy about 7.0 percent MC) is required.

Strength. The strength (MOR) of dried rubberwood is 9,500 psi. The stiffness is 1.3 million psi. The hardness is 500 pounds.

Color and grain. The color of rubberwood is initially creamy when sawn, but after kiln drying and exposure to light, the wood turns darker with brownish and pinkish tints. The sapwood and heartwood appear similar and cannot be easily separated. The vertically running vessels give the grain a coarse appearance. These vessels also give the wood a bit of character.

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Three of the five major spruces in North America grow in the eastern half of the United States and Canada. Collectively called eastern spruce, they are red spruce (Picea rubens), white spruce (P. glauca) and black spruce (P. mariana). Red spruce is found primarily in New England, the Appalachians and eastern Canada, while white and black spruce are found in the Great Lakes region, New England and eastern Canada. Their wood is impossible to separate visually once sawn into lumber. The properties are also essentially identical.

Eastern spruce trees are usually not very large (seldom over 2 feet in diameter) and the lumber they produce often has very small knots. Although spruce is known for its high strength compared to its weight, the abundance of other softwood species with clearer wood in much of its growing area resulted in limited harvesting and manufacturing of eastern spruce lumber in the past. Among its uses, in colonial times, the wood was utilized for mast and spars; this use continues today for small sailing boats. 

Eastern spruce also still is used for piano sounding boards, violins and other musical instruments due to its excellent resonance properties. It also has potential applications in furniture and cabinets due to its gluing, machining, stability and strength properties. Perhaps the only limiting factor is, because of its past history of usage and its processing into construction lumber.

Today, pulpwood is probably eastern spruce’s number one use, followed by construction lumber, especially 2 x 4s and 2 x 6s, much of which is imported from Canada and sold under the species grouping of SPF lumber (spruce, pine, fir). 

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. The three spruces have a density of approximately 27 pounds per cubic foot at 7 percent MC. This is one of the lightest-weight species in North America.

Drying. The spruces dry easily with few defects. If logs or green lumber are stored in warm weather, blue stain in the sapwood is common. Shrinkage in drying is 6 percent. Final moisture content should be between 7.5 to 9 percent. As with most softwoods, higher MCs are desired, because excessively dry wood will develop torn grain and may require increased glue spread to avoid a starved joint.

Gluing and machining. They machine very easily, with few defects except around the knots. Gluing is excellent. The softness means the wood is quite forgiving if gluing conditions are not perfect.

Stability. The spruces are subject to minimal size changes when the MC changes — about 1 percent size change running across the grain parallel to the rings (tangentially) for each 5 percent MC change, and about 1 percent size change across the rings (radially) for each 10 percent MC change.

Strength. Spruces are medium in strength and stiffness. Bending strength (MOR) averages 10,800 psi for red and black and a little lower for white. Hardness averages 500 pounds. Stiffness (MOE) averages 1.6 million psi in red and black, with white 1.43 million psi.

Color and grain. The grain is straight, fine and uniform. The wood is pale white, with the sapwood and heartwood indistinguishable most of the time. There is no appreciable odor when dry.

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Yellow poplar is probably the third most important hardwood in our Eastern forests, after maple and oak. Much of the yellow poplar today is growing on excellent sites where the American chestnut used to grow in the late 19th century, before blight wiped out these magnificent trees.

As a result, yellow poplar is one of the largest trees in today’s Eastern forests, large in both diameter and height, often more than 3 feet in diameter and 150 feet tall with some 100 feet of the stem without a branch. Yellow poplar is a member of the magnolia family. In fact, from time to time, some lumber from cucumber tree or other magnolia is accidentally included with yellow poplar lumber; such lumber is much whiter in color.

Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is also called tulip poplar and tulip tree. Sometimes, it is called just poplar, which can lead to confusion with the true poplar species including aspen. However, yellow poplar is not related to the aspen poplar or European poplars. The volume of yellow poplar in the forest continues to increase every year in spite of large harvests. 

In fact, yellow poplar has been providing important forest products for North American inhabitants for many centuries. For example, much of the early wooden tableware was made of yellow poplar. Early European settlers used it for log cabins, although decay soon resulted in deterioration.

Yellow poplar has been used for everything from musical instruments to pallets and construction 2x4s, from veneer to particleboard and OSB.

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. Yellow poplar averages about 26 pounds per cubic foot at 7 percent MC. 

Drying. Yellow poplar is perhaps the easiest drying species native to North America. Some blue stain can develop if drying is not aggressive enough or if logs or green lumber was stored rather than processed immediately. Shrinkage in drying is 6 percent. Final moisture contents for yellow poplar should be between 6.0 to 7.5 percent MC. 

Gluing and machining. Yellow poplar machines very well. Sharp tools will minimize fuzzing. Yellow poplar is very easy to glue. The softness means that the wood is quite forgiving in gluing.

Stability. Yellow poplar is subject about 1 percent size change running across the grain parallel to the rings (tangentially) for each 3-1/2 percent MC change, and about 1 percent size change across the rings (radially) for each 6 percent MC change.

Strength. Yellow poplar is medium-low in strength and stiffness. The bending strength (MOR) averages 10,100 psi. Hardness averages 540 pounds. Stiffness (MOE) averages 1.6 million psi. 

Color and grain. Grain of yellow poplar is fine and uniform in texture. Sapwood is fairly white with a hint of light tan color with an obvious light green hue. For “show wood” the sapwood is preferred. Heartwood tends to be greener in color. 

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Whenever we do a little reading about the way things were in our industry in the “old days,” meaning the 1920s and 1930s, we find out that one of the major species back then was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). The name liquidambar is from the common name in Mexico (indirectly from Latin, meaning liquid and amber) in reference to the fragrant resin. 

The yellowish colored sap (technically called gum in a hardwood tree) is exuded from bark wounds and can actually be boiled down and concentrated into a salve that will reportedly cure skin problems and other ailments. 

The tree is common from Missouri to Connecticut and all states south of there, but lumber production is primarily in the southern states.

Even though plentiful, sweetgum lumber is not seen in most sawmills and therefore not seen in most furniture plants. Yet, it is one of my favorite species. I think that it is overlooked as a premium, moderately strong wood.

In the marketplace sweetgum is sold as either sap gum (which is the light colored sapwood) or red gum (which is the reddish-brown heartwood).

Incidentally, the Australian nursery rhyme that begins “Kookaburra sits in the old gum tree, eating all the gumdrops he can see.” is not referring to the sweetgum tree, but to one of the Australian eucalyptus trees. However, the expression “up a gum tree” which means “in great difficulty” or “in a sticky situation” is apparently American in origin. There is also an old musical song (circa 1824) that was also danced to entitled “Possum Up a Gum Tree” which was from South Carolina and referred to the sweetgum.  

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. Sweetgum has a density of approximately 33 pounds per cubic foot. Sweetgum KD lumber weighs about 3 pounds per board foot at 7 percent MC.

Drying. The wood has interlocked grain and it warps. Flatsawn wood has a tendency to cup. Overall, gum shrinks 8 percent from green to 6 percent MC. Sap gum, like most sapwood, is subject to rapid discoloration by blue stain fungi and chemical gray stain in warm weather. Red gum will honeycomb if dried too quickly.

Gluing and machining. Sweetgum glues fairly easily, but because of the interlocked grain, any change in MC will likely affect surface flatness, thereby affecting glue bond strength. Sanding requires fresh (sharp) sandpaper. 

Stability. Gum shrinks and swells a more than some hardwoods (1 percent size change for a 3 percent MC change). Further, the interlocked grain can cause some unusual shrinkage problems. I suggest 6.5 percent MC to 7.0 percent MC as the target for most users. 

Strength. The strength (MOR) at 12 percent MC is 12,500 psi, Stiffness (MOE) is 1.64 million psi, and hardness is 850 pounds.
Color and grain. Red gum has its own wonderful, busy character often with long streaks of various dark colors and interlocked grain. This interlocked grain creates a long ribbon like appearance, very similar to mahogany. The concern over drying has been blown out of proportion and has led to a negative connotation when sweetgum is mentioned.

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Basswood (Tilia americana), also called linden, is a beautiful, fast growing tree reaching heights of 130 feet. It has a straight trunk, with most of the bole limb-free, thereby producing large volumes of clear lumber. The wood is creamy white, low in weight and strength, and without much obvious grain.

There are three commercially used species of basswood in North America: American basswood, Carolina basswood, and white basswood. The wood is so similar that they are not separated in the lumber market. The natural range of American basswood is widespread, ranging from southwestern New Brunswick to eastern North Dakota to North Carolina. Carolina basswood is found in the southeastern United States, from Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas. White basswood is common in the Appalachian Mountains and the Cumberland Plateau region of the eastern United States. There can be potential staining problems if shipping lumber before drying, so it may be prudent to purchase basswood from sawmills and drying facilities in the growth areas.

Due to its freedom from odor and taste, basswood continues to be the preferred wood for apiary (bee hives) supplies and other food containers. 

It is also the top choice for wooden Venetian blind slats. Wood carvers also love basswood as its straight grain and low density mean easy cutting. Other “old-time” uses include drafting tables, surveying stakes, tripods, and other related equipment. 
In Europe some of the beautiful religious paintings are framed in basswood, which they call lime. There are more than 25 species of basswood in Europe. 

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. Basswood is one of the lightest weight hardwoods in North America. Its density is about 25 pounds per cubic foot or about 2 pounds per board foot, 1-inch thick. A planed piece 3/4-inch thick at 7 percent MC will weigh under 1-1/2 pounds per BF.
Drying. Basswood dries rapidly with little risk of defect except for possible staining. Because many uses for require long, narrow, thin cuttings that must be flat, special attention must be paid to stress relief at the end of drying. Shrinkage is about 7 percent.

Gluing and machining. Gluing is excellent, with the wood’s softness making it very forgiving. Very low MCs and low density mean that pressure needs to applied ASAP after the glue is spread, or a starved joint is likely. Basswood machines very well if tools are sharp. 

Stability. Basswood changes size by 1 percent if the moisture changes by 3 percent MC. This is a higher rate of change than many hardwoods, but basswood’s straight grain minimizes any warping that could occur if the moisture changes.

Strength. The strength (MOR) of basswood is 8700 psi, which is quite low. Likewise, the stiffness is somewhat low, 1.46 million psi,. The hardness is 410 pounds. 

Color and grain. The creamy white heartwood and sapwood are so similar in appearance that it can be hard to tell them apart. The texture is very fine, and the grain is indistinct. Due to variations in color from region to region, and possible staining, a contract should specify the color required to prevent any off-color material. 

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Aspen, also known as aspen poplar, poplar (especially outside North America), popple, trembling aspen, bigtooth aspen, quaky and a dozen other local names, is a wonderful wood for many use. The lumber is primarily from two trees, mainly trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and a little bit of bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentata). Lumber from the two species can be mixed and would not be separated.

Aspen trees are found mainly in Northeastern United States, the Lake States, northward into Canada, and in the Rockies from New Mexico north into Alberta. In fact, aspen is the most widespread hardwood species in North America. Incidentally, in the Rockies, this is major hardwood species. Although the tree is a prolific seeder, most reproduction is by root sprouting. When the roots are disturbed and there is lots of sunlight, new trees sprout with as many as 1 million sprouts per acre.

Aspen wood is lightweight and fairly weak and bendable. But, in spite of these somewhat negative features, the wood is very desirable for many uses including children’s toys, tongue depressors, and paneling and seats in saunas. Why? Because this wood is 100 percent splinterless. 

It can also be used in pallets and for some structural applications. The wood has been widely used locally for log cabins, home and barn framing. Large sized, clear lumber is used for caskets It has also been used extensively for paper manufacturing. 

Aspen was also used for cooking in summer kitchens. The wood would ignite quickly, supplying the needed heat for cooking, but then quickly burn up and not keep the kitchen excessively hot. 

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density. Dry lumber at 7 percent MC averages about 25 pounds per cubic foot, making aspen the lightest native hardwood. A planed and dry 1 x 6 x 10-foot piece of aspen will weigh only 8 pounds. 

Drying. Drying rates can be as rapid as possible; slow drying initially can lead to blue stain. Shrinkage is around 6 percent, green to 7 percent MC. Because the wood is weak, fuzzing is likely unless it is under 7 percent MC. Oftentimes, final MCs will be between 5 to 6 percent.

Gluing and machining. Aspen is the easiest of all native American species to glue. However, the wood is very absorptive so pressure must be applied ASAP or else the glue will dry out and not bond well. Due to the fuzzing problem tools must be extremely sharp. High speed steel is recommended rather than carbide. Likewise, only fresh sandpaper should be used. A sizing coat or sanding sealer is often used to stiffen the fibers and eliminate the fuzzing problem.

Stability. Once dry and any wet pockets are dried as well, the wood is very stable. It changes 1 percent in size tangentially with a 6 percent MC change (about 30 percent RH change) and 1 percent in size radially for a 10 percent MC change (50 percent RH). 

Strength. Bending strength (MOR) is 8400 psi and the elasticity is 1.2 million psi; hardness is only 350 pounds. Nevertheless, aspen can be used for studs in home building, pallets, and other structural uses.

Color and grain. The sapwood and heartwood are both white. The grain and texture is fine with the annual rings difficult to see. 

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American cherry (Prunus Serotina of the family Rosaceae) continues to be popular with furniture manufacturers especially in residential furniture, particularly bedroom and dining room pieces.

It is a good domestic cabinet wood due to its warm red tone and dramatic grain cathedrals, plus many consumers ask for it by name. It has become popular wood for kitchen cabinets. 

Common names include American black cherry, cabinet cherry, rum cherry, whiskey cherry, wild cherry, Pennsylvania cherry, and mountain black cherry.

American cherry can be finished in a wide range of colors and turns more red with age. 

It is easy to machine. It is not particularly easy to bend, and is prone to splitting when steam bent, unlike ash that is more flexible. 

Black cherry is widely reported to be the largest of the native cherries and the only native cherry to be considered commercially valuable. Found throughout the United States, cherry’s prime growing areas are Pennsylvania and New York. Its range also includes parts of Canada.

Pennsylvania cherry also has the least amount of pitch pockets. Buyers come from all over the world searching for the color, also called pink salmon. If you go farther North, the cherry is bright pink; farther South, it becomes more orange in tone.

Cherry thrives in full sun, so the long-ago practice of clear cutting forests actually helped the supplies of cherry to grow. It has been a popular fine furniture wood since the early settlers discovered its properties. It is especially prized for its beauty and workability, its fine grain texture, and range of figures, which includes curly cherry. 

American cherry grows in the eastern United States and Canada. Its uses include furniture and cabinetmaking, high-end joinery, musical instruments, flooring and boat interiors. It is a favorite for turnery and carving and also is used in pattern making and specialty items. 

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Height/weight. Average height is 50 to 100 feet, with average diameters of 1-2 feet. The average weight is 36 pounds per cubic foot, with a specific gravity of 0.58. 

Gluing and machining. Cherry works well with both hand and power tools and can be glued without problems. For finishing, cherry does well with a variety of treatments.

Stability. Cherry dries fairly rapidly with little degrade. Use care to avoid shrinkage during seasoning. Cherry shrinks about 3.7% radially as it dries. The wood shrinks about 7.1% tangentally as it dries. The tangental-to-radial shrinkage is 1.9%

Strength. The modulus of rupture is 12,300 psi. Janka hardness rating is 950. The modulus of elasticity is 1.49 million psi. Shear strength is 1,700 psi.

Color and grain. When finished, cherry wood is a beautiful salmon pink to red and its color improves with time.

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In North America, the maple species are divided into two groups: soft maple (which includes red maple, Acer rubrum, silver maple, A. saccharinum, and bigleaf maple, A. macrophyllum) and hard maple (which includes sugar maple, A. Saccharum, and black maple, A. Nigrum). Once the lumber is manufactured, it is possible with 10x magnification to separate hard maple from soft maple as hard maples have ray cells of two different widths (seen from the end grain) while soft maples have one width. Soft maple also tends to be softer, lighter weight, weaker and dingier colored than hard maple.

Of the two main soft maples, red maple is about 10 percent harder and 15 percent heavier than silver maple. Red is also stronger and stiffer than silver.

Red maple grows throughout the East Coast, from Florida to Newfoundland and west to Texas and Minnesota. It prefers wetter sites, but grows in a wide variety of climatic and soil conditions. Trees are typically 70 feet high and 24 inches in diameter at maturity.

Silver maple also grows along the East Coast, but is not found commercially in Florida, Louisiana or Texas. The trees are a bit taller and larger in diameter than red and have the largest winged seeds of all the maples.

Although not as strong as hard maple, the name “soft” gives the wrong impression. Soft maple is more than adequate for many uses, including furniture, flooring, cabinets, kitchenware, clothes hangers and the like. 

Red and silver maple also can be used for syrup production, although the good sugar season is earlier and shorter and yields are less than with hard maple. Wildlife also like to browse the trees for food. 

Processing suggestions and characteristics
Density: Red maple weighs about 36 pounds per cubic foot at 7 percent MC. This means that a piece of lumber planed to 3/4 inch will weigh 2-1/4 pounds. Silver maple weighs about 31 pounds per cubic foot at 7 percent MC. Dry, planed lumber will weigh just under 2 pounds per BF.

Drying: There is little risk of checking and warp with proper stacking and drying conditions. Slow drying can develop stain, both fungal and chemical, so aggressive drying ASAP after sawing is suggested. Dry stickers are also essential. Shrinkage averages about 6 percent in width for flatsawn lumber and 3 percent in thickness.

Gluing and machining: Red and silver maple are excellent gluing woods and are very easy to machine. Due to the softness of the wood, very sharp tools work best. Avoid moisture contents over 8.0 percent MC for best machining.

Stability: Soft maples are less responsive to humidity changes than hard. For flatsawn lumber, a 4 percent MC change results in 1 percent shrinkage or swelling. In the radial direction, an 8 percent MC change results in 1 percent size change.

Strength: Red maple has an MOR of 7700 psi, an MOE of 1.39 million psi and surface hardness of 700 pounds. Silver has an MOR of 5800 psi, MOE of 0.94 million psi and hardness of 590 pounds.

Color and grain: The grain is very fine textured with white sapwood. Heartwood is buff colored to darker brown.

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